Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive Apprenticeship and Instructional Technology.
Summary by Laconya Ruby:
Basic Thesis: That the technology which is now available makes
apprenticeship learning possible and cost effective.
The six basic tentative characteristics which computational learning
environments should possess based on the tutoring systems
emerging: situated learning, modeling and explaining, coaching,
reflection, articulation, and exploration.
Definitions:
Situated Learning: learning knowledge and skills in the context to
which they apply to real life situations.
Modeling: showing how a process develops over time.
Explaining: stating why it (modeling) happens that way.
Coaching: observing students as they work and providing assistance
when needed.
Reflection: the student looking back over his/her performance and
analyzing the performance.
Articulation: the act of the student verbalizing the reflection stage.
Exploration: getting the student to try different hypotheses,
methods, and strategies.
SITUATED LEARNING:
The technology allows students to apply theories to real life
situations through microworlds, networks, data bases, graphic
packages, and text editors .
Benefits:
1. Students learn situations to which theories can apply.
2. Students learn how to apply the knowledge they learn.
3. When students apply theories a situation, how to use the theory
in other situations becomes more obvious.
4. Theories stored in context of situations are more useful than
mere memorized words of the theory.
Learning theories should be done in multiple contexts not just one.
This is so students can learn to generalize about which theories to
use and how to use them in given situations.
Examples in paper: "Geography Search" and constitutional
convention
MODELING AND EXPLAINING:
2 kinds (modeling) important to education:
1. Model real world processes.
2. Model the performance of experts.
The computer lets the student see things which were not possible
through human instruction or pictured/described in text. Also, the
computer offers the advantage of letting the student "see" what is
being explained while the computer "talks". In other words, the
student does not have to read text and then look at a picture to put
the two together, but through the technology available - the student
can do both simultaneously.
Benefits:
1. The student can pose a problem for the expert to solve.
2. Combining experimentation and theory.
3. Making the entire process visible.
Example in paper: "Summit"
COACHING:
Benefits:
1. Provides help at the problem solving level.
2. Provides help when the student needs it.
3. Provides as little/as much help that is needed.
4. Provides different points of view on the problem.
Examples in paper: "How the West was Won", plane geometry, and
programming
REFLECTION:
4 ways to reflect:
1. Imitation - when a coach compares how you do something in
comparison to how it should be done.
2. Replay - when the coach videotapes your whole action and
compares it to how experts do it.
3. Abstracted Replay - when a coach videotapes your whole action
but focuses on a specific point and compares it to how experts do it.
4. Spatial Reification - the trajectory of the points mentioned above.
Benefits:
1. The student focuses on his/her action.
2. The student can compare his/her effort to that of others.
3. Abstractions can be made.
4. Comparison of the processes critical to the expert versus the
novice.
Example in paper: "Geometry Tutor"
ARTICULATION:
Computers encourage this in 2 ways:
1. Students can build and test theories.
2. Students can explain their theories to other students.
Benefits:
1. Making knowledge which is not spoken clearly defined.
2. Making knowledge available to be used in other tasks.
3. Comparing strategies to different contexts.
4. Makes the student see the problem from another student's point
of view.
Example in the paper: "Robot Odyssey"
EXPLORATION:
Benefits:
1. The student learns to set a goal which is achievable.
2. The student learns how to develop and test hypotheses.
3. The student makes discoveries on his/her own.
Example in the paper: science laboratory and "Smithtown"
In conclusion, the technology that is now available allows us to
educate by applying modeling, coaching, and fading to theories
which can be used in real life situations and to create environments
where the methods of learning are possible.