Burton, R.R., and Brown, J.S. (1982). An investigation of computer coaching for informal learning activities.
Summary by Doris Elfe:
A computer based tutoring/coaching systems play important roles in
making informal game playing effective as a learning activity. This article
examines the:
1. Philosophy of coaching systems
2. Diagnostic strategies for coaching systems (i.e. what/where student
needs help)
3. Tutorial Strategies (i.e. what to "say" and when to interfere)
PHILOSOPHY:
The student is in control.
COACH'S ROLE: to recognize and explain weaknesses, or suggest
ideas when the student has none.
A fundamental purpose of a tutor/coach is to:
1. keep the student from forming "grossly incorrect" models of the game,
2. help the student see the limits of his/her strategy, and
3. help the student discover the causes of errors and strategies.
Constructive vs. Non-Constructive:
Constructive: Student determines what caused an error and can correct it.
Non-Constructive: Not enough information to change his/her behavior.
COACH'S ROLE: transform non-constructive errors into constructive
ones. Point out things that may have been overlooked.
Dilemma of coaches:
1. When to interrupt.
2. What to say.
DIAGNOSTIC STRATEGIES
Coach infers shortcomings based on the game...
But...what about skills not used in a session? Just because a skill is not
used, does not mean the student does not have/know the skill.
Glass-Box vs. Black-Box:
Glass box: (articulate model): problem solving decisions match human
skills.
Black box: data structures or algorithms that do not mimic human
behavior.
COACH'S ROLE: combine both glass box experts and black box experts;
use the black-box expert to determine all the possible moves; use the
glass box expert to determine causes for less than optimal behavior.
Tear: When a student is using a strategy that differs from the experts
strategy. Based on a sequence of moves; when several issues begin to
reflect a substantial amount of use when they should not have been
used or a substantial lack of use, when they should have been used.
COACH'S ROLE: If the tear gets large enough, the coach has to consider
alternative strategies and test these for tears.
TUTORING STRATEGIES
Issues and Examples:
Issues: what the student is expected to master.
Examples: a concrete, relevant, memorable instance that illustrates the
issue or a problem.
COACH'S ROLE: Monitor the student's behavior (Issue Recognizer) and
determine what skill is weak (Issue Evaluator); give student feedback
with an example if the coach decides to interrupt.
Issue Recognizers - data driven;
Issue Evaluators - goal directed.
Explanation problem: What should the coach say?
COACH'S ROLE: Should not say what the student already knows; should
give the student positive encouragement.
Principles for Coaches:
General Philosophy
1. Before giving advice, be sure that the Issue used is one in which the
student is weak.
2. When illustrating an Issue , only use an example (alternative move) in
which the result or outcome of that move is dramatically superior to the
move made by the student.
3. After giving the student advice, permit him/her to incorporate the Issue
immediately by allowing him/her to repeat the turn.
4. If a student is about to lose, interrupt and tutor him/her only with
moves that will keep him/her from losing.
Interest
5. Do not tutor on two consecutive moves, no matter what.
6. Do not tutor before the student has a chance to discover the game for
himself/herself.
7. Do not provide only criticism when interrupting. If the student makes
an exceptional move, identify what is good and congratulate him/her.
8. After giving advice, offer the student a chance to retake his/her turn, but do not force him/her to retake it. (The student may consider re-
taking his/her turn as cheating.)
9. Always have the computer expert play an optimal game.
10. If the student asks for help, provide several levels of hints.
11. If the student is losing consistently, adjust the level of play.
12. If the student makes a potentially careless error, be forgiving. But
provide explicit commentary in case it was not just careless.